콩고 왕국 (Kingdom of Kongo) [Wiki]

[개요](1390-1914)

- The Kingdom of Kongo (Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila^[4] or Wene wa Kongo;^[5] Portuguese: Reino do Kongo) was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in present-day northern Cabinda, the Republic of the Congo, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,^[6] as well as the southernmost part of Gabon.

- From c. 1390 to 1891 it was mostly an independent state. From 1891 to 1914 it functioned as a vassal state of the Kingdom of Portugal.

^-  The modern-day Bundu dia Kongo sect favors reviving the kingdom through secession from Angola, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Gabon.

[연대별]

History

-  the kingdom's origin lies in the very large and not very rich country of Mpemba Kasi located just south of modern-day Matadi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

- At some point around 1375, Nimi a Nzima, ruler of Mpemba Kasi, made an alliance with Nsaku Lau, the ruler of the neighbouring Mbata Kingdom. This alliance guaranteed that each of the two allies would help ensure the succession of their ally's lineage in the other's territory. 

Foundation of the Kingdom

- The first king of the Kingdom of Kongo Dya Ntotila was Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1380-1420).

- The high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo (수도. 지금의 Matadi)and its outskirts played a critical role in the centralization of Kongo. The capital was a densely settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region where rural population densities probably did not exceed 5 persons per km². 

(Early Portuguese travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a large city, the size of the Portuguese town of Évora as it was in 1491.)

- By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the Kingdom of Kongo was a highly developed state at the center of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and ivory, the country manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery. The Kongo people spoke in the Kikongo language. The eastern regions, especially that part known as the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza (or in Kikongo Mumbwadi or "the Seven"), were particularly famous for the production of cloth.

The Portuguese and Christianity

- In 1483, the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão sailed up the uncharted Congo River, finding Kongo villages and becoming the first European to encounter the Kongo kingdom.

- At that point(1485) the ruling king, Nzinga a Nkuwu, converted to Christianity.

[포르투갈에 갔다가 돌아온 원주민들이 학교를 열기도 함.] 

- While King João I later reverted to his traditional beliefs, Afonso I established Christianity as the state religion of his kingdom.

[아폰소 1세가 콩고를 국교로 확립한 것에도 주목]

-  Afonso created a syncretic version of Christianity that would remain a part of its culture for the rest of the kingdom's independent existence. King Afonso himself studied hard at this task. Rui d'Aguir(조언자) once said Afonso I knew more of the church's tenets than he did.

- Part of the establishment of this church was the creation of a strong priesthood and to this end Afonso's son Henrique was sent to Europe to be educated. Henrique became an ordained priest and in 1518 was named as bishop of Utica (a North African diocese recently reclaimed from the Muslims). He returned to Kongo in the early 1520s to run Kongo's new church. He died in 1531 as he was about to go to Europe for the Council of Trent.

Today, Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Angola, the Portuguese-speaking section of the former Kongo kingdom.

Slavery and royal rivalries

- the Kingdom of Kongo became a major source of slaves for Portuguese traders and other European powers 

(The Cantino Atlas of 1502 mentions Kongo as a source of slaves for the island of São Tomé)

[주로 전쟁 포로들을 노예로 수출]

[왕권을 둘러싸고 치열한 싸움이 있었었음]

- 노예 교역을 둘러싸고 포르투갈 인들이 불법 행위를 많이 하자, 

Enraged by this breach of contract, King Diogo broke off relations in 1555 and expelled 70 or so Portuguese living in his realm (many of whom had lived there for a long time and had African wives and mixed-race children). 

[백인과 흑인의 결혼을 있을 수 없는 일이라고 해가드는 말하지만 현실이 그렇지 않다는 것을 보여주는 예.]

Kongo under the House of Kwilu

- Álvaro I came to the throne during another contest over the throne in 1568. Being from the Kwilu river valley and not a blood relative of any of the previous kings, his reign marked the beginning of the House of Kwilu. 

(반대 세력들에 맞서기 위해 Alvaro1세는 포르투갈의 도움을 청하고 영토의 일부 지역을 포르투갈 식민지로 허용.)

- Álvaro also worked hard to westernize Kongo, gradually introducing European style titles for his nobles, so that the Mwene Nsundi became the Duke of Nsundi; the Mwene Mbamba became the Duke of Mbamba. The Mwene Mpemba became Marquis of Mpemba, and the Mwene Soyo became Count of Soyo.

[콩고 왕국은 15세기 이후 서구와 끊임없이 교류]

Factionalism

Kongo under the House of Nsundi

First Kongo-Portuguese War

- The First Kongo-Portuguese War began^[when?] initially because of a Portuguese campaign against the Kasanze Kingdom, which was conducted ruthlessly.

[처음에는 포르투갈 쪽이 승리했으나, 나중에는 콩고 왕국 측히 승리] 1623

- As a result of Kongo's victory, the Portuguese merchant community of Luanda revolted against the governor, hoping to preserve their ties with the king. Backed by the Jesuits, who had also just recommenced their mission there, they forced João Correia de Sousa to resign and flee the country.

- [Pedro II는 네덜란드와 연합하여 포르투갈을 몰아낼 계획을 세웠으나 그 전에 죽음]

Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu

- Ambrosio was replaced with Alvaro IV by the Duke of Mbamba, Daniel da Silva. King Alvaro IV was only eleven at the time and easily manipulated.

Kongo under the House of Kinlaza

- After waging a second war against his cousins, Nimi a Lukeni and Nkanga a Lukeni, Alvaro V was killed, and replaced by Alvaro VI in 1636, initiating the House of Kinlaza's rule over Kongo.

Dutch invasion of Luanda, and the Second Portuguese War

- In 1641, the Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda, after an almost bloodless struggle. They immediately sought to renew their alliance with Kongo, which had had a false start in 1624, when Garcia I refused to assist a Dutch attack on Luanda

Kongo's War with Soyo

The Third Portuguese War

The Battle of Mbwila

- Mbwila, a nominal vassal of Kongo, had also signed a treaty of vassalage with Portugal in 1619. It divided its loyalty between the Colony of Angola and Kongo in the intervening period. Though the Portuguese often attacked Mbwila, they never brought it under their authority. 

Kongo Civil War

- In the aftermath of the battle, there was no clear succession. The country was divided between rival claimants to the throne. The two factions, Kimpanzu and Kinlaza, hardened, and partitioned the country between them. Pretenders would ascend to the throne, and then be ousted. The period was marked by an increase in BaKongo slaves being sold across the Atlantic, the weakening of the Kongo monarchy and the strengthening of Soyo.

- The kingdom of Kongo was to remain completely independent, though still embroiled in civil war, thanks to the very force (Portuguese colonials) it had fought so long to destroy. This Portuguese defeat was resounding enough to end all Portuguese ambitions in Kongo's sphere of influence, until the end of the nineteenth century

Turmoil and rebirth

- For nearly forty years, the kingdom of Kongo wallowed in civil war. With São Salvador in ruins, the rival houses had retreated to bases in Mbula (also known as Lemba) and Kibangu.

18th and 19th centuries

- In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Kongo artists began making crucifixes and other religious objects that depicted Jesus as an African. Such objects produced by many workshops over a long period (given their variety) reflect that emerging belief that Kongo was a central part of the Christian world, and fundamental to its history.

- In 1839 the Portuguese government, acting on British pressure, abolished the slave trade south of the equator which had so damaged Central Africa. Human trafficking continued until well into the 1920s, first as an illegal slave trade, then as contract labor.

[노예 교역 대신에 상아와 고무 등의 교역]

- This trade revolutionized the economies and eventually the politics of the whole of Central Africa. In place of the slave trade, largely under the control of state authorities, thousands, and eventually hundreds of thousands, of commoners began carrying goods from inland to coastal ports.

- New social organizations, makanda, emerged. These makanda, nominally clans descended from common ancestors, were as much trading associations as family units. These clans founded strings of villages connected by fictional kinship along the trade routes, from Boma or the coast of Soyo to São Salvador and then on into the interior

- At the Conference of Berlin in 1884–1885, European powers divided most of Central Africa between them. Portugal claimed the lion's share of what remained of independent Kongo; however, Portugal was not then in a position to make "effective occupation". King Pedro V ruled ten more years using the Portuguese to strengthen his control. King Pedro V voluntarily reaffirmed Kongo's position as a Portuguese vassal in 1888. After a revolt against the Portuguese in 1914, Portugal abolished the title of king of Kongo, of which the holder at this moment was Manuel III of Kongo, ending even symbolic native rule. The Titular Kings, however, kept using the title at least until 1964, when a dispute over the succession began, according to the Almanach de Bruxelles. 

Military structure

- Three hundred and sixty musketeers served in the Kongo army against the Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila. (1620년 대 ?)

Political structure

- the Vata village : 기본 단위

- wene (small states) - mbanza [1000 - 5000]

- The kingdom of Kongo was made up of a large number of provinces. Various sources list from six to fifteen as the principal ones. Duarte Lopes' description, based on his experience there in the late sixteenth century, identified six provinces as the most important. These were Nsundi in the northeast, Mpangu in the center, Mbata in the southeast, Soyo in the southwest and two southern provinces of Mbamba and Mpemba.

Royal Council

- One of the central problems of Kongo history was the succession of power, and as a result the country was disturbed by many rebellions and revolts.

Economic structure

- The universal currency in Kongo and just about all of Central Africa was shell money known locally as nzimbu

- The Kongo administration regarded their land as renda, revenue assignments. The Kongo government exacted a monetary head tax for each villager, which may well have been paid in kind as well, forming the basis for the kingdom's finances. The king granted titles and income, based on this head tax. Holders reported annually to the court of their superior for evaluation and renewal.

Art of the Kongo Kingdom

- The most notable feature of this region’s figurative style is the relative naturalism of the representation of both humans and animals. "The musculature of face and body is carefully rendered, and great attention is paid to items of personal adornment and scarification. Much of the region’s art was produced for social and political leaders such as the Kongo king."

[왕국 내 권력 장악을 둘러싸고 지속적인 전쟁이 있었다는 것, 왕권이 강하지 못해, 혹은 반대로 지역 세력이 강해 지방 정부에까지 강한 장악력을 행사하지는 못했다. 그리고 유럽과 끊임없이 교류하고, 일정 지역을 식민지로 할양해 주었다는 것, 기독교가 큰 역할을 하고 있다는 것 등을 알 수 있다.] [왕들은 개종 후 포르투갈 식 이름을 가짐.]